For an adhesive bond to have measurable strength, elastic energy must be stored during the bond-breaking process. Therefore, pressure-sensitive adhesion is a characteristic of a visco-elastic material. The balance of viscous flow and the amount of stored elastic energy determine the usefulness of a PSA material Franz TJ. Acrylic-, polyisobutylene-, and silicone-based adhesives are used mostly in the design of www.
The selection of an adhesive is based on a number of factors, including the patch design and drug formulation. For reservoir systems with a peripheral adhesive, an incidental contact between the adhesive and the drug or penetration enhancers must not cause instability of the drug, penetration enhancer, or the adhesive. In the case of reservoir systems that include a face adhesive, the diffusing drug must not affect the adhesive. Polyisobutylene PIB Isobutylene polymerizes in a regular head-to-tail sequence by low-temperature cationic polymerization to produce a polymer having no asymmetric carbons.
The physical properties of the polymer change gradually with increasing molecular weight. Low molecular weight polymers are viscous liquids. With increasing molecular weight, the liquids become more viscous, and then change to balsam-like sticky masses and finally form elastomeric solids. High molecular weight PIB has a viscosity average molecular weight between , and 2,,, and low molecular weight. PIB has the chemical properties of a saturated hydrocarbon.
It is readily soluble in nonpolar liquids. Cyclohexane is an excellent solvent, benzene is a moderate solvent, and dioxane is a nonsolvent for PIB polymers Kruge E et al. Polyacrylates Polymers of this class are amorphous and are distinguished by their water-clear colour in solution and stability toward aging. Acrylic polymers are highly stable compounds. Unless they are subjected to extreme conditions, acrylic polymers are durable and degrade slowly. Oxidative degradation of acrylic polymers can occur in high-pressure and high-temperature conditions by the combination of oxygen with the free radicals generated in the polymer to form hydro peroxides Burgess AR et al.
Acrylic polymers and copolymers have a greater resistance to both acidic and alkaline hydrolysis than do poly vinyl acetate and vinyl acetate copolymers. In extreme conditions of acidity or alkalinity, acrylic ester polymers can be made to hydrolyze to poly acrylic acid or to an acidic salt and the corresponding alcohol. Acrylic polymers are insensitive to normal UV degradation because the primary UV absorption of acrylics occurs below the solar spectrum.
Silicones Silicone PSAs comprise polymer or gum and a tackifying resin. Medical-grade silicone adhesives contain a low viscosity dimethylsiloxane polymer Pfister W. R et al. The silicone resin has a three-dimensional silicate structure that is end capped with trim ethyl siloxy groups and contains residual silanol functionality Woodard JT et al.
The adhesive is prepared by cross linking the reactants in solution by a condensation reaction between silanol groups on the linear poly dimethylsiloxane polymer and silicate resin to form siloxane bonds Si-O-Si. Unlike acrylic-, rubber-, and PIB-based adhesives, medical-grade silicone adhesives do not contain organic tackifiers, stabilizers, antioxidants, plasticizers, catalysts, or other potentially toxic extractable.
Some of the silicone PSAs contains a significant degree of free silanol—functional groups. Certain amino- functional drugs can act as catalysts to cause further cross-links between these silanol groups.
Some of the trace components in acrylic-adhesive blends reacted with a variety of drugs and caused colouring, which deepens with time.
Different polymers and plasticizers used in transdermal system are given in the Table 2. After the product is coated, the organic solvent is removed by evaporation. When they are heated, HMPSAs melt to a viscosity suitable for coating, but when they are cooled they generally stay in a flawless state. Polybutenes, phthalates, and tricresyl phosphate often are added as plasticizers to improve mechanical shock resistance and thermal properties. Antioxidants such as hindered phenols are added to prevent oxidation of ethylene-based hot-melt adhesives.
Paraffin and microcrystalline wax are added to alter the surface characteristics by decreasing the surface tension and the viscosity of the melt and to increase the strength of the adhesive upon solidification.
Moisture-curing urethanes have been attempted as cross-linking agents to prevent creep under the load of these thermoplastic materials. Silicone-based adhesives also are amenable to hot-melt coating. Excipient compatibility also must be seriously considered because the prolonged contact between the backing layer and the excipients may cause the additives to leach out of the backing layer or may lead to diffusion of excipients, drug, or penetration enhancer through the layer.
However, an overemphasis on the chemical resistance often may lead to stiffness and high occlusivity to moisture vapor and air, causing patches to lift and possibly irritate the skin during long- term wear. The most comfortable backing may be the one that exhibits the lowest modulus or high flexibility, good oxygen transmission, and a high moisture-vapor transmission rate In a novel modification to the conventional design, a patch was fabricated in which the backing itself acted as a reservoir for the drug.
The upper internal portion of the drug reservoir infiltrated the porous backing and became solidified therein after being applied so that the reservoir and the backing were unified.
This modification enabled the backing itself to act as a storage location for the medication-containing reservoir Rolf D et al. It is therefore regarded as a part of the primary packaging material rather than a part of the dosage form delivering the active principle Santoro A et al. However, because the liner is in intimate contact www. In case cross-linking is induced between the adhesive and the release liner, the force required to remove the liner will be unacceptably high Pfister WR et al.
Paul, MN. Plasticizers are added to pharmaceutical polymers intending to ease the thermal workability, modifying the drug release from polymeric systems and improving the mechanical properties and surface properties of the dosage form Felton, ; Lin et al. Tensile tests enable to study the mechanical properties of the formulation such as stress strain curves and stress at failure. These properties provide information about the resistance to damage during storage and usage.
The tensile strength of the transdermal films varies with the type of the polymer and plasticizer used. Generally a soft and weak polymer is identified with low tensile strength and low elongation values, a hard and brittle polymer is identified with moderate tensile strength and low elongation values and a soft and tough polymer is identified with high tensile strength and high elongation values Bharkatiya et al.
Although triacetin is considered as a good plasticizer for Eudragit E transdermal films, it has been determined www. The choice and design of polymers, adhesives, penetration enhancers and plasticizers in transdermal systems are crucial for drug release characteristics as well as mechanical properties of the formulation.
Beside the other components of transdermal patches, plasticizers also significantly change the viscoelastic properties of the polymers. The reasons for the use of plasticizers in transdermal drug delivery systems are the improvement of film forming properties and the appearance of the film, preventing film cracking, increasing film flexibility and obtaining desirable mechanical properties.
Therefore, the selection of the plasticizer type and the optimization of its concentration in the formulation should be carefully considered. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, Vol. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. Had graft and R. Guys, Eds. Marcel Dekker, Inc. Baker R. Barnhart S. Barhate SD Journal of Pharmacy Research, Vol.
Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. Bhatnagar S. Microencapsulation 11 4 , — Boretos J. W, Detmer D. E, and Donachy J. Costa P. Davis S. Florence A. Kydonieus, Ed. Felton LA Swarbrick Ed. Gal A. Gooch, J. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Polymers, Springer Reference Pharmaceutical Development and Technology, Vol. Guyot M. Guy, R. Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. Elgindy N. Journal www. Minghetti P. Muraoka T et al. Howe- Grants, Ed. Journal of Controlled Release, Vol. Howe-Grants, Ed. Quan, D.
Transdermal Magazine, 3 : Journal of Excipients and Food Chemistry, Vol. Pharmaceutica Acta Helvetiae, Vol. Patent No. Santoro A. Wypch G. Handbook of Plasticizers, Chem Tec, Walde P et al. Williams, A. The systems of non-virial vectors for gene delivery are polyethylenimine derivatives, polyethylenimine copolymers, and polyethylenimine conjugated bio-reducible polymers, and the systems of virial vectors are DNA conjugates and RNA conjugates for gene delivery.
The development of polymeric drug delivery systems that have based on natural and synthetic polymers are rapidly emerging to pharmaceutical fields. The fruitful progresses have made in the application of biocompatible and bio-related copolymers and dendrimers to cancer treatment, including their use as delivery systems for potent anticancer drugs.
Combining perspectives from the synthetic and biological fields will provide a new paradigm for the design of polymeric drug and gene delivery systems.
The searches for new drug delivery systems approach and new modes of action represent one of the frontier research areas. Those involve multi-disciplinary scientific approaches to provide major advances in an improving therapeutic index and bioavailability at the specific delivery of drugs [ 5 , 6 ]. Drug delivery system combines one or more traditional drug delivery systems with engineered technologies. Biodegradable and bio-absorbable polymers make the magic possible choice for lot of new drug delivery systems.
The bio-absorbable polymers like hydrogels such as poly lactic acid and poly glycolic acid , and their copolymers have used to create the delivery component of the systems [ 7 , 8 ]. Whether the drug delivery system relies on a biodegradable implant to deliver medicine subcutaneously or deep within the body, the biodegradable and bio-absorbable polymers provide a safe framework for delivering medicine without harm to the body.
Polymeric drug delivery system has defined as a formulation or a device that enables the introduction of a therapeutic substance into the body. It improves its safety and efficacy by controlling the rate, time, and place of release of drugs in the body. Drug delivery has achieved great development in the last two decades, but it remains a difficult task to regulate drug entry into the body such as brain.
However, recent progress in studies of the carrier-mediated transportation of nano-drug delivery system across the blood-brain barrier is beginning to provide a rational basis for controlling drug distribution to the brain. The transport systems at the blood-brain barrier are the uptake transporters for natural nutrients such as amino acid, peptide, hexose, mono-carboxylate and stem cells [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].
The present paper has been reviewed for the polymeric drug and gene delivery systems of natural and synthetic polymers to formulate drugs into the backbone structures in various cases. The future prospects of the research for practical applications has been also proposed for the development in the fields. The amino acid side-chain of arginine consists of a 3-carbon aliphatic straight chain, the distal end of which is capped by a guanidinium group, which has a pK a of It is therefore always protonated and positively charged at physiological pH.
Because of the conjugation between the double bond and the nitrogen lone pairs, the positive charge is delocalized, enabling the formation of multiple hydrogen bonds in the chemical structures [ 14 ]. The delocalization of charge in guanidinium group of l -arginine for polymeric drug delivery systems.
As a cationic polymer with favorable property, it has been widely used to form polyelectrolyte complexes with polyanions for drug delivery [ 15 , 16 ]. It has favorable biological properties such as nontoxicity, muco-adhesiveness, biocompatibility and the biodegradability [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. The aqueous derivatives of chitosan such as chitosan salts Fig. Cyclodextrin is useful molecular chelating agent. There are three types of cyclodextrins in the nature.
An example of cyclodextrin in drug delivery system is 2-hydroxylpropyl derivate, which is a powerful solubilizer, and has a hydrophilic chain outside and a hydrophobic chain inside [ 25 ]. They are able to prevent the drug degradation and to improve the drug stability and solubility resulting on a higher bioavailability [ 26 , 27 ].
Those are very useful for polymeric drug delivery systems for practical applications. The chemical structure of the three main types of cyclodextrin CD for polymeric drug delivery systems. Glycolic acid is a useful intermediate for organic synthesis, in a range of reactions, including oxidation-reduction, esterification, and long chain polymerization.
It has used as a monomer in the preparation of polyglycolic acid and other biocompatible copolymers. Two molecules of lactic acid have dehydrated to the lactone lactide. In the presence of catalysts, lactides polymerize to either atactic or syndiotactic polylactide which are biodegradable polyesters [ 28 ]. Glycolic acid and lactic acid have employed in pharmaceutical technology to produce water-soluble glycolate and lactate from otherwise-insoluble active ingredients.
They have found further to use in drug delivery, topical preparations, and cosmetics to adjust acidity and for its disinfectant and keratolytic properties [ 29 , 30 ]. Hyaluronic acid, which is a natural polymer, has the ability to target the CD44 over expressing cancer cells. Natural polymers have been in use for many years with the aim of facilitating the efficiency of drugs and their delivery. Biodegradable polymers are widely being studied as a potential carrier material for specific drug delivery because of their non-toxic, biocompatible nature.
Natural polysaccharides have investigated for application in drug delivery industry as well as in biomedical fields. Modified polymer has found its application as a support material for gene delivery, cell culture, and tissue engineering.
Nowadays, natural polymers have modified to obtain novel biomaterials for controlled drug delivery applications. Polysaccharides are long chains of carbohydrate molecules, specifically polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages as shown in Fig.
This carbohydrate can react with water-hydrolysis using amylase enzymes at catalyst, which produces constituent sugars monosaccharides or oligosaccharides.
Natural saccharides are generally of simple carbohydrates called monosaccharides with general formula CH 2 O n where n is three or more. Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehyde [ 31 ]. Those natural polymers have used as biomaterials for drug delivery systems. Starch is a glucose polymer in which glucopyranose units have bonded by alpha -linkages.
It has made up of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules and amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units [ 32 ]. It is one of the two components of starch polymer. Poly 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate [poly HEMA ] is a polymer that forms a hydrogel in water or aqueous solution [ 33 ]. Poly HEMA is commonly used to coat cell culture flasks in order to prevent cell adhesion and induce spheroid formation, particularly in cancer research.
Older alternatives to pHEMA include agar and agarose gels [ 35 , 36 ]. The physical and chemical properties of pilocarpine from poly HEMA hydrogels were investigated to elucidate the mechanism of drug—polymer interaction and the effect on drug release behavior of controlled release polymeric devices [ 38 ].
Poly HEMA hydrogels are widely used for biomedical implants. The extreme hydrophilicity of poly HEMA confers resistance to protein fouling, making it a strong candidate coating for ventricular catheters [ 39 ]. The thermodynamic property of the system has evaluated from the phase diagram and the heat absorbed during phase separation by entropy effect [ 41 ]. The process of free radical polymerization for a single type of monomer, in this case of N -isopropyl-acrylamide, find to form the polymer known as a homo-polymerization.
The initiator of azobisisobutyronitrile AIBN has commonly used in radical polymerization. Thermo-responsive polymers have attracted much attention because of their potential biological and medical applications such as drug and gene delivery [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. The cell culture surface of the polymer has readily prepared by the technique reversibly into hydrophilic and hydrophobic coatings of PNIPAAm-grafted polymers [ 46 ].
The swelling ratio of the hydrogels in the presence of poly allyl amine PAA as a polyelectrolyte was also measured at the same conditions [ 48 ]. It has briefly discussed about the tumor micro-environmental responsive nano-particles in situ stimuli responsive such as pH, redox responsive, hypoxia sensitive, etc.
Linear poly ethylenimine PEI is soluble in hot water, at low pH, ethanol or chloroform. They are insoluble in cold water, acetone, benzene, and ethyl ether. Branched PEI has synthesized by the ring opening polymerization of aziridine as shown in Fig. Linear PEI is available by post-modification of other polymers like poly 2-oxazolines or N -substituted polyaziridines [ 49 ].
Linear PEI was synthesized by the hydrolysis of poly 2-ethyloxazoline [ 50 , 51 ]. Degradable diblock and multiblock tetrablock and hexablock N- 2-hydroxypropyl methacrylamide HPMA copolymer-gemcitabine GEM and -paclitaxel PTX conjugates had synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transter RAFT copolymerization followed by click reaction for preclinical investigation [ 52 ].
In vitro studies demonstrated that both conjugates had potent cytotoxicity and their combination showed strong synergy, suggesting a potential chemotherapeutic strategy [ 53 ]. Dendritic polymers are highly branched polymers with controllable structures, which possess a large population of terminal functional groups, low solution or melt viscosity, and good solubility. Their size, degree of branching and functionality can be controlled and adjusted through the synthetic procedures.
The research of dendrimer has increased on the design and synthesis of biocompatible dendrimer and its application to many areas of bioscience including drug delivery, immunology and the development of vaccines, antimicrobials and antivirals [ 56 , 57 ]. The dendrimers are the members of a versatile, new class of polymer architectures, dendritic polymers after traditional linear, cross-linked, and branched types as shown in Fig.
The dendrimer type of bio-reducible polymer for efficient gene delivery had been also investigated [ 58 ]. Bio-absorbable drug delivery systems are a better choice for the application of drug carriers where only the temporary presence of the implant is needed [ 59 ]. Among the synthetic and biodegradable polymers, aliphatic polyesters such as poly glycolic acid , poly lactic acid , poly caprolactone and polydioxanone, are most commonly used and applied to drug delivery systems.
As shown in Fig. The therapeutic targeting of biomimetic chitosan-PEG-folate-complexed oncolytic adenovirus has examined for active and systematic cancer gene therapy [ 66 ]. The oncolytic adenovirus coated with multi-degradable bio-reducible core-cross-linked poly ethyleneimine for cancer gene therapy had been also applied [ 67 ].
Hepatoma targeting peptide conjugated bio-reducible polymer complexed with oncolytic adenovirus for cancer gene therapy were investigated [ 68 ]. Despite considerable advances in tumor-targeting technologies, the lack of selectivity towards tumor cells is still the primary limitation of current cancer therapies. A novel strategy for targeted drug delivery to cancer cells had developed through the formation of a physical conjugate between doxorubicin Dox and the A10 RNA aptamer that binds to the prostate-specific membrane antigen PSMA [ 69 ].
The effective polymers have designed specifically for gene delivery, and much has learned about their structure—function relationships. With the growing understanding of polymer gene-delivery mechanisms and continued efforts of creative polymer scientists, it is likely that polymer-based gene-delivery systems will become an important tool for human gene therapy [ 70 ]. Nanoparticle-based therapeutics in lung cancer is an emerging area and covers the diagnosis, screening, imaging, and treatment of primary and metastatic lung tumors.
Innovative engineering on polymeric nano-carriers allows multiple anticancer drugs and gene delivery to site-specific targets [ 71 ]. The targeted drug delivery and gene therapy through natural biodegradable nanoparticles is an area of major interest in the field of nanotechnology and pharmaceuticals [ 72 ].
The biomimetic and bioinspired systems improve biocompatibility during drug delivery application. The success of such a drug delivery system depends on parameters like shape, surface, texture, movement, and preparation methods. The systems have great influence on the biological systems owing to their less toxicity, high biocompatibility, significant interaction, and so on [ 73 , 74 , 75 ].
The novel developments of dendritic polymers based targeting nanoscale drug delivery vehicles described here provide great potential to achieve better therapeutic indexes in cancer therapy as well as low side effect [ 76 , 77 , 78 ].
Biocompatible polymeric nanoparticles are considerably promising carrier candidates in delivery of drugs and genes because of their unique chemical and physical properties [ 79 , 80 ]. Drug-free macromolecular therapeutics induce apoptosis of malignant cells by the crosslinking of surface non-internalizing receptors. The receptor crosslinking has mediated by the bio-recognition of high-fidelity natural binding motifs. Those have grafted to the side chains of polymers or attached to targeting moieties against cell receptors.
This approach features the absence of low-molecular-weight cytotoxic compounds. Macromolecular therapeutics, also referred to as polymeric nano-medicines, are a diverse group of drugs characterized by their large molecular weight MW , including polymer-drug conjugates, polymeric micelles, and polymer-modified liposomes [ 81 , 82 , 83 ]. The gene therapy has a potential in treating many diseases such as infectious disease and immune system disorders.
The efficient delivery of therapeutic gene to target a cell is the most important step in gene therapy [ 84 , 85 ]. Successful gene therapy is thus dependent on the development of an efficient delivery vector. There are non-viral vectors and viral vectors for gene delivery [ 86 ]. Pulmonary drug and gene delivery to the lung represents a non-invasive avenue for local and systemic therapies. Nano-sized particles offer novel concepts for the development of optimized therapeutic tools in pulmonary research.
Polymeric nano-carriers are generally preferred as controlled pulmonary delivery systems due to prolonged retention in the lung [ 87 ].
Polyethylenimine PEI is a class of cationic polymers proven to effect for gene delivery [ 88 ]. The bio-reducible core molecules have expected to increase molecular weights and reduce the cytotoxicity of the copolymers.
The cytotoxicity of polyethylenimine PEI is a dominating obstacle to its application. Polyethylenimine PEI is a well-known cationic polymer, which has high transfection efficiency owing to its buffering capacity. It has reported that PEI is cytotoxic in many cell lines and non-degradable. In order to solve the problems, the polyethylenimine copolymers have introduced firstly in gene delivery systems [ 91 ]. Novel ABA triblock copolymers consisting of low molecular weight linear polyethylenimine PEI as the A block and poly ethylene glycol PEG as the B block were prepared and evaluated as polymeric transfectant.
Polyethylenimine- alt -poly ethylene glycol copolymers had been synthesized for an ideal gene carrier both safety and transfection efficiency. The copolymers were complexed with plasmid DNA. The resulting complexes exhibited no cytotoxic effects on cells even at high copolymer concentration.
Poly ethylenimine PEI, 1. The bio-reducible PEI 1. It has been concluded that the PEI 1. Outstanding representatives of bio-polymers that have emerged over the last decade to be used in gene therapy are synthetic bio-reducible polymers such as poly l -lysine , poly l -ornithine , linear and branched polyethyleneimine, diethyl-aminoethyl-dextran, poly amidoamine dendrimers, and poly dimethyl-aminoethyl methacrylate [ ].
Viral vectors not only have the ability to effectively infect cells, but also transfer DNA to the host without causing an immune response. Viral vectors have designed to be safe by making them incapable of replication. Gene transferred by viral vector has dominated the clinical trials in gene therapy, because they are more efficient than physicochemical methods [ ].
Viral vectors have divided into two types, which are integrating and non-integrating viral vectors. Integrated viral vectors have integrated into the human genome, including adeno-associated virus and retroviral vectors; non-integrating vectors, like adenoviral vectors.
Gene delivery systems for gene therapy provide a great opportunity for treating diseases from genetic disorders, cancer, and other infections. The recent development of gene delivery system has reviewed for viral delivery systems and non-viral delivery systems [ ]. Gene therapy is a promising new technique for treating many serious incurable diseases such as cancer and genetic disorders.
The main problem limiting the application of this strategy in vivo is the difficulty of transporting large, fragile and negatively charged molecules like DNA into the nucleus of the cell without degradation [ ].
The gene therapy of DNA conjugate is as a new promising technique used to treat many incurable diseases and the different strategies used to transfer DNA, taking into account that introducing DNA into the cell nucleus without degradation.
It is essential for the success of this therapeutic technique. The use of DNA as a drug is both appealing and simple in concept. In many instances, the feasibility of such an approach has been established using model systems.
In practical terms, the delivery of DNA to human tissues presents a wide variety of problems that differ with each potential therapeutic application [ ]. The challenge for the therapeutic use of viral vectors is to achieve efficient and often extended expression of the exogenous gene while evading the host defenses.
Recent engineering of modified viral vectors has contributed to improved gene delivery efficacy [ ]. The design of polymeric nanoparticles for gene therapy requires engineering of polymer structure to overcome multiple barriers, including prolonged colloidal stability during formulation and application.
Most of the current methods for programmable RNA drug therapies are unsuitable for the clinic due to low uptake efficiency and high cytotoxicity. A major obstacle to efficient RNAi is the systemic delivery of the therapeutic RNAs into the cyto-plasma without having trapped in intracellular endo-lysosomes [ ]. It can down-regulate specific protein expression by silencing the activity of its targeted gene [ , ].
Delivery of these miRNA molecule enriched-exosomes subsequently results in highly efficient overexpression or deletion of the designated miRNAs in the recipient cells both in vivo and in vitro [ ]. The development of drug delivery carriers based on natural and synthetic polymers are rapidly emerging field. It takes advantages of the remarkable delivery mechanism, which has used by pathogens and mammalian cells, such as selective targeting and prolonged circulation by evasion of the immune systems.
The biomimetic and bio-inspired systems have a bright future ahead with a lot of potentials to solve any obstacles encountered in polymeric drug delivery. The fruitful progress will have made in the application of biocompatible and bio-related copolymers and dendrimers to cancer treatment, including their use as delivery systems for potent anti-cancer drugs such as cis -platin and doxorubicin.
The unique properties of dendrimers such as their high degree of branching, multi-valence, globular architecture, and well-defined molecular weight make them promising new scaffolds for polymeric drug delivery systems.
The micro-processes that are required for the development of such carriers, such as genetic engineering or in vivo treatments to incorporate therapeutic substances, make it difficult to maintain the integrity of natural and synthetic polymers with cells in a body. The gap between synthetic and biological systems has traditionally been very large. Recent advances in the synthesis of novel biomaterials and understanding of biological systems have paved the way towards bridging this gap. Polymeric drug delivery carriers that have based on pathogens such as bacteria and viruses are potentially immunogenicity for human body.
A certain degree of immunogenicity can be ideal if pathogen-based carriers have intended for vaccine delivery, owing to their adjuvant ability. Combining perspectives from the synthetic and biological fields will provide a new paradigm for the design of polymeric drug delivery systems in near future.
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